The classical Persian poets and theoreticians saw the aim of their art primarily as the continuation of Arabic poetry in another language. For them, poems that were not written according to the rules of Arabic prosody did not count as serious poetry. It is difficult to assess in detail what has survived from pre-Islamic Iranian poetry because so little is known about oral Middle Persian poetry. One of the essential differences between classical Persian poetry and pre-Islamic literature was precisely the introduction of the recording in writing of poems composed on principles already evolved in Arabic philology.
The prosody of classical Persian verse is based on the distich, called a bayt, which consists of half lines that are metrically identical (isometric hemistichs). Persian metrics are based strictly on the quantity of syllables in which three values are distinguished: a short syllable, a long syllable, and an extended syllable (which is counted as a long syllable plus a short one). The individual metres allow only minor variations. In theory they are regarded as derivations of ideal patterns, but in practice each of the approximately 30 variations constitutes a separate metrical pattern. The best-known metre is the motaqāreb (Arabic: motaqārib), which was especially applied to epic poetry.
Rhyme is used in all kinds of Persian poetry, but its distribution provides one of the main distinctions for the poetic forms. A fundamental type is monorhyme—the repetition of the same rhyming sound at the end of each distich, with the exception of the first distich, in which the first hemistich also uses that same rhyme (such a poem would be represented by the rhyme scheme aabaca). On this principle are the qaṣīdeh (Arabic: qaṣīdah) and the ghazal constructed, as are the stanzaic poems and partly also the Persian robāʿī, or quatrain, although the latter occurs in two different patterns of rhyme, aaba and aaaa. Another short form is the qiṭʿah, or muqaṭṭaʿah, called a “fragment” because the first hemistichs of such poems do not rhyme. The only form not conforming to the rule of monorhyme is the masnawi, or poem in couplets, in which each distich has a separate internal rhyme, which changes with each new distich (aabbcc and so on). A special feature of Persian rhyme is the radīf, a kind of refrain consisting of the same particle (a word or a short phrase) added after each instance of the rhyme throughout a poem.
In Persian, different types of poetry are often associated with specific poetic forms, but not exclusively. In court poetry, for instance, the special form of the panegyric is the qaṣīdeh, its length varying between 15 and more than 100 distichs. The main part of the qaṣīdeh expresses extensive praise of the merits of the poet’s patron by way of a conventional repertoire of topoi. The most attractive part of the poem is usually the nasīb, or introduction, which addresses topics such as love, nature, and wine. At the courts, panegyrical odes served a ceremonial purpose, with poets required to present them at festivals marking the New Year or at Eid al-Fitr, the holiday that concludes Ramadan, the Muslim holy month of fasting. Other occasions for panegyrics were births and deaths, the foundation of buildings, military campaigns, or royal hunts. However, panegyrics could also take the form of stanzaic poems or dedicatory sections in epic poems. A qaṣīdeh could also be used by religious poets as a homiletic or didactic poem.
Ghazals are much shorter poems, usually no more than 7 to 10 distichs. They are known to have existed—as a type of oral poetry accompanied by music—long before the earliest written records in which they first appear. The first collections of ghazals handed down in divans date from the beginning of the 12th century. Very soon the ghazal developed into one of Persian literature’s most important poetic forms. One of its unique features is the convention by which the poem is concluded by a passage of one of two distichs in which the name of the poet (usually a pen name) is mentioned. By origin the ghazal is a poem of love, but several subsidiary subjects became attached to this theme. Quite early the ghazal was adopted by mystics as a medium for the expression of love for the divine. The imagery of a ghazal lent itself easily to allegorization or at least to a type of ambiguity that pointed toward both secular and transcendental referents.
The rhyme pattern of the masnawi, only rarely used in Arabic poetry, gave Persian poets scope for a rich and varied epic literature. A division of masnawis into categories of heroic, romantic, and didactic provides a convenient but rough classification. Narrative plays a role in each of these types, and didacticism is not quite absent from poems that aim first to tell a story.
The qiṭʿah and the robāʿī are best suited for epigrams. These shorter forms were used for satire and topical poetry but also for mystical verse. They were frequently inserted in prose texts to highlight special points in a discursive or narrative context.
Court poetry
The period when rulers of Iranian origin were in power was only a short interlude before the arrival of Turkish tribes from Central Asia. At first the Turks were military slaves to the Muslims, but soon they established their own dynasties. The first were the Ghaznavids, residing at Ghazna (now Ghaznī, Afghanistan), shortly followed by the Qarakhanids of Central Asia and by the Seljuqs, whose massive invasion in the middle of the 11th century also caused great demographic changes in the Islamic Middle East. For centuries the Turks remained the dominating political force in Iranian lands and in Anatolia, where they laid the foundation for modern Turkey. They underwent a process of Islamization that was profoundly influenced by Persian civilization. As a part of this process, the Seljuqs copied the courtly traditions of their Iranian predecessors, including the patronage of poetry, which was considered to be most valuable for building up the prestige of kingship in the Iranian style.
Early poets and the Shāh-nāmeh
The first significant Persian poet was Rūdakī. He flourished in the 10th century, when the Samanids were at the height of their power. His reputation as a court poet and as an accomplished musician and singer has survived, although little of his poetry has been preserved. Among his lost works is a versified translation (probably from the Arabic) of the fables collected in Kalīlah wa Dimnah.
Also during the 10th century, several attempts were made to produce a Persian version of the epic tradition that had already been incorporated into Arabic historiography. Daqīqī made one such attempt; he began a poetic version of which no more than a fragment—dealing with the establishment of Zoroastrianism—is still extant. This fragment survived as a result of Ferdowsī, the greatest epic poet of Persia, who included Daqīqī’s lines in his Shāh-nāmeh (“Book of Kings”), an epic poem of approximately 50,000 distichs that he completed about 1010.
The story told in the Shāh-nāmeh starts with Gayōmart, the first king but also the first man, and ends with the death of the last Sasanian king at the time of the Arab invasion. It is a mixture of myth, legend, and history, some of which can be traced back to the Avesta and the Vedic literature of India (see Vedic religion). In the view of world history presented in the Shāh-nāmeh, Iran is at the centre of events, and Iranian kingship is presented as a universal institution. However, Iran’s dominating position is also challenged: first by the Arab usurper Ẕaḥḥāk (a humanized dragon derived from ancient mythology) and then by the king of Tūrān, a rival empire situated in Central Asia. Behind these conflicts is the Zoroastrian idea that throughout the history of the world a divine element and a demonic element are fighting with each other until in the end good prevails over evil. In their struggle against Tūrān, the kings of Iran are supported by a number of vassal lords, in particular by a clan of local rulers, the family of Rostam, who is the main hero of Ferdowsī’s poem. In the first section of the Shāh-nāmeh, which is entirely legendary, a number of long stories are included, the most famous of which is the tragic fight between Rostam and his son Sohrāb. It ends with the father’s unwitting killing of his own son. The later parts of the poem come closer to the actual history of Iran: they deal with the campaigns of Alexander the Great and the lives of the Sasanian kings, but here also many elements are clearly legendary. The Shāh-nāmeh quickly became of great importance to Iranians as the literary expression of their national sentiments.
The proliferation of court patronage
In the first decades of the 11th century, Ghazna was the most important centre of Persian literature. This was the result of the cultural policy of the sultan Maḥmūd (reigned 998–1030), who assembled a circle of scholars, philosophers, and poets around his throne in support of his claim to royal status in Iran. The leading poet was ʿUnṣurī, whom the sultan appointed as his “lord of the poets” with the authority to test the talents of any poet seeking to be admitted to the sultan’s court. ʿUnṣurī’s qaṣīdehs were highly appreciated for their rhetorical virtuosity. He also wrote a number of romantic poems in masnawi form, which are almost completely lost now, except for some fragments from the love story of Vāmeq and ʿAz̄rāʾ (Arabic: Wāmiq and ʿAdhrāʾ), an adaptation of a long Greek narrative of the Hellenistic period. Other renowned poets of Maḥmūd’s circle were Farrukhī, who excelled in attractive nasībs to his poems of praise, and Manūchihrī, a specialist in long stanzaic poems.
The Ghaznavid poets glorified in their panegyrics the raids of the sultan’s army into the Indian subcontinent. These campaigns resulted in a permanent conquest of the Punjab, where Lahore (now in Pakistan) became the residence of a Ghaznavid prince as the viceroy of Hindustan. In the second half of the 11th century, a tradition of court poetry was established in Lahore. The major representative was Masʿūd Saʿd Salmān. He was an official of the viceroy’s administration, but he fell into disgrace and had to spend long years in exile in remote fortresses. He wrote several poems to bring his dismal condition to the attention of the Ghaznavid sultan and thereby established a genre of Persian prison poetry.
In the 11th and 12th centuries other Turkish rulers continued the tradition of patronage established by the Ghaznavids. The most important court was that of the Great Seljuq sultans, who resided first at Eṣfahān (now in Iran) and then at Merv in Khorāsān (near modern Mary, Turkm.). The prominent masters of the panegyric qaṣīdeh were Muʿizzī and Anvarī, who both flourished in the first half of the 12th century. The latter is particularly famous for his renewal of panegyric poetry through the introduction of learned allusions and sophisticated rhetorical devices. In modern Iranian criticism these features are seen as the first signs of a change from the comparatively simple and natural idiom of the early poets, called the “style of Khorāsān,” to the much more sophisticated “style of Iraq” (i.e., “Persian Iraq” [ʿIrāq ʿajamī], a name once used for central and western Iran). These geographical terms refer to a westward shift by Iran’s literary centres, which gained momentum in the course of the 12th century when the Seljuq empire began to fall apart. Small states emerged in all parts of the country, usually under the rule of atabegs, the governors of young princes of the Seljuq house who had seized power on their own behalf. Persian poetry benefited greatly from this political process because the centres of literary patronage proliferated.
Already by the mid-11th century the tradition of Persian poetry had been introduced in the region of Azerbaijan (today in northwestern Iran) by Asadī, who had migrated to Azerbaijan from his native town of Ṭūs (now Mashhad) in Khorāsān. As a poet, he had become the most important successor to Ferdowsī through his Garshāsp-nāmeh, a heroic epic in masnawi form telling about the adventures in India and Sri Lanka of Garshāsp, a supposed ancestor of Rostam’s. Asadī was also the author of Lughat-i furs (“Vocabulary of the Persians”), which explained words used by the poets in eastern Iran and intended to promote Persian poetry in the west.
About the middle of the 12th century two outstanding poets emerged under the patronage of local rulers in western Iran. At the court of Shīrvān, Khāqānī wrote qaṣīdehs exploiting the possibilities of imagery and such figures of speech as simile and metaphor in a very personal style. Although he stayed within the conventions of court poetry, he also followed the trend toward the treatment of ethical and religious themes that was gaining strength in his days. His most famous poem is the qaṣīdeh Aywā-e Madāʾin (“The Portico of Madāʾin”), an evocation of the palace of the Sasanians on the banks of the Tigris in what is today Iraq. It was intended as a reminder of the vanity of worldly power and glory. The masnawi titled Tuḥfat al-Irāqayn (“The Present from the Two Iraqs”), written on the occasion of a pilgrimage to Mecca, cleverly knits together panegyric, admonition, and allegory.
The second outstanding poet to emerge in western Iran during the 12th century was Neẓāmī, who displayed in his poetic style a mannerism similar to Khāqānī’s. But the genre in which Neẓāmī excelled made his works more accessible. His great fame rests on a group of masnawis known collectively as the Khamseh (“The Quintuplet,” or “The Five”; they are in fact individual works that only later were treated as a set of poems). The first, Makhzan al-asrār (The Treasury of Mysteries), is a didactic poem; the other four are usually classified as romantic masnawis, though they also contain elements that belong to the heroic epic. (Love stories had already been incorporated into the Shāh-nāmeh and appeared as a separate genre in the works of earlier poets, in particular in the adaptation of an ancient Iranian tale in Vīs wa Rāmīn [“Vīs and Rāmīn”] by Fakhr al-Dīn Gurgānī, written about 1050.) Two of Neẓāmī’s poems are tales about Sasanian kings who were historical figures: Khosrow wa Shīrīn (“Khosrow and Shīrīn”) tells the story of the love of Khosrow II (reigned 590–628) for an Armenian princess, and in Haft paykar (“The Seven Beauties”) the life of Bahrām V (reigned 420–438) serves as a framework for seven fairy tales narrated to the king each night when he visits one of the pavilions of his seven brides, who are all princesses from one of the seven climes identified by medieval cosmology. Astrological associations involving planets, precious stones, and colours are woven into the poem. For the masnawi Laylī wa Majnun (“Layla and Majnun”) Neẓāmī found his material in poems attributed to the 6th-century Arab poet Imruʾ al-Qays that are embedded in anecdotes about his love for a Bedouin girl belonging to another tribe. Neẓāmī made these separate tales into a continuous romance treating all aspects of a love affair that cannot find its fulfillment in this world. The last poem is the Iskandar-nāmeh (“Book of Alexander the Great”), which consists of two parts: the first deals with Alexander’s military campaigns, and the second contains his conversations with the sages and philosophers assembled at his court. Neẓāmī’s poem is based on Ferdowsī’s treatment of the same story, but Neẓāmī’s ultimate source is a Greek-language romance written in Egypt before 300 ce (see Alexander romance). The Khamseh became a model that later poets emulated. The most successful imitations were the romances composed in the 14th century by Amīr Khosrow, who was a poet and mystic as well as a courtier of the sultans of Delhi, and in the 15th century by Jāmī.
The qiṭʿah and the robāʿī
Collections of qiṭʿahs (fragments) and robāʿiyyāt (quatrains) are to be found in almost all the divans of the court poets. These short poems were the small coinage of literary communication, used for the exchange of repartees in a conversation between a poet and his patron or among poets and courtiers. Often these poems were improvisations that were later written down because the wittiness displayed in them was highly appreciated.
Their contents could be of all kinds. qiṭʿahs were used for topical poems, satires, and light verse, the comic force of which lay often in their use of coarse language and perceived obscenity. Separate from the divans, robāʿiyyāt were assembled in anthologies. They provide glimpses into literature written outside the courts.
Many epigrams were also handed down as poems composed by famous philosophers, scholars, and mystics, but usually the philological evidence is too uncertain to confirm such attributions. The most celebrated case is that of Omar Khayyam, a mathematician and astronomer of great renown who was credited with the authorship of robāʿiyyāt expressing a skeptical view of the world and advocating hedonism as the sole comfort in a life without meaning. Within a few centuries after his death, in 1131, the number of robāʿiyyāt ascribed to Omar grew to more than 1,000. After the English writer Edward FitzGerald translated Omar’s poetry as The Rubáiyát of Omar Khayyám (1859), Omar became to Western readers the greatest Persian poet. Mahsatī, a female poet to whom are attributed robāʿiyyāt of a secular and occasionally bawdy kind, would have lived about the same time as Omar. But it is doubtful whether she was a historical figure, because she also appears as the heroine of a romantic story that contains many of the poems put to her name.
Religious poetry
The most important environments outside the courts where Persian literature could thrive were those provided by religious minorities and mystical circles. In the 10th century the Ismāʿīlī branch of Shiʿi Islam had come into power in Egypt and established the Fatimid dynasty. From Cairo intensive propaganda was targeted at the Sunni Abbasid caliphs of Baghdad. In the Samanid period, Ismāʿīlī missionaries gained a considerable influence over the intellectual elite of the eastern Iranian provinces, taking advantage of the new opportunities offered to them by the rebirth of Persian as a written language. Later, under the Ghaznavids, who strongly supported Sunni Islam, a reaction set in, and the minority groups of Ismāʿīlīs were persecuted. Nāṣir-i Khusraw, a Ghaznavid official who in 1045 went on a pilgrimage to Mecca, visited Cairo and was there converted to the Ismāʿīlī cause. After his return he sought refuge in the mountainous region of Badakhshān (today divided between Afghanistan and Tajikistan). While in hiding he wrote expositions of the tenets of Ismāʿīlism in Persian prose. His most famous work is Safar-nāmeh (“Book of Travel”; Eng. trans. Diary of a Journey Through Syria and Palestine), a travelogue of his journey to Arabia and Egypt. In long qaṣīdehs and in a masnawi, the Rawshanāʾī-nāmeh (“Book of Light”), he set forth his ethical teachings. This didactic poetry influenced Sufi (Islamic mystical) poetry.
Probably the first Persian poems written by mystics were robāʿiyyāt. An extensive collection of these poems is attributed to Abū Saʿīd ibn Abū al-Khayr, who died in 1049. He would be the first mystical poet in Persian literature, but one of his hagiographers asserts that he did not write any poetry himself; he instead merely used anonymous quatrains in his preaching that were circulating among the Sufis of Khorāsān. Another eponym linked to a set of robāʿiyyāt is Bābā Ṭāhir. He is a historically vague personality thought to have lived during the 11th century as a wandering dervish in the mountains of western Iran. These poems are written in a nonclassical Persian that includes many colloquialisms.
Much more is known about the 12th-century poet Sanāʾī. He began his career as a poet at the court of Ghazna but turned his back on professional poetry, seeking instead the patronage of preachers and mystics for whom he wrote poems in all the poetic forms available to secular literature of his time. His major work is Ḥadīqat al-ḥaqīqah wa sharīʿat al-ṭarīqah (“The Garden of Truth and the Law of the Path”; Eng. trans. in part The Walled Garden of Truth, or The Enclosed Garden of Truth), a lengthy didactic poem in masnawi form written as a sermon, which ends with a moralizing address to the Ghaznavid sultan. A remarkable work is Sayr al-ʿibād ilā al-maʿād (“The Journey of the Servants to the Place of Return”), a short masnawi that describes in allegories the stages passed by the soul on its way through life, from a fetus to a fully developed human being. In addition to writing didactic qaṣīdehs, which resemble those of Nāṣir-i Khusraw, Sanāʾī was the first Persian poet who left a sizable collection of ghazals. In these poems the blending of the secular and the transcendental, which later became characteristic of this genre, can be seen. An important motif introduced by Sanāʾī is the idealization of the qalandar, a type of outlaw who defies all rules of good behaviour and abandons himself to drunkenness and debauchery. The term was adopted by dervishes who practiced a nonconformist way of life that rejected not only the world but also conventional piety, which they decried as hypocrisy. The qalandar acquired a strong symbolic value as a motif in Sufi poetry, especially in ghazals.
Even more detached from secular poetry was Farīd al-Dīn ʿAṭṭār. He was born in Nīshāpūr, Iran, and was perhaps an apothecary, as his name ʿAṭṭār—literally, “perfumer” or “apothecary”—implies. No ties of patronage are known in his case, nor are his connections to the Sufi communities existing in his time very clear. His output in poetry and prose is, however, considerable, although a number of the works carrying his name are forgeries made after his death. Among his genuine works is a group of didactic masnawis in which narrative plays an important role. In most of these poems ʿAṭṭār used the device of a frame story, the most famous example of which is the tale in Manṭiq al-ṭayr (“The Speech of the Birds”; Eng. trans. The Conference of the Birds); in it birds search for a king, whom after a perilous journey they find in the mythical bird Sīmurgh. That name, according to a popular etymology, means “Thirty Birds,” a reference to the 30 birds that survive the quest and attain their goal, which amounts to finding themselves in the Sīmurgh. Within these frame stories ʿAṭṭār employs a wealth of anecdotes to illustrate the details of his discourse. He also left a divan with mystical ghazals and didactic qaṣīdehs. His numerous robāʿiyyāt were collected in the Mukhtār-nāmeh (“Book of Selection”).
The third major mystical poet was Jalāl al-Dīn Rūmī, also known as Mawlānā. Born in the city of Balkh (now in Afghanistan), he traveled westward at an early age with his family to settle at Konya, the residence of the Seljuq rulers of Rūm (Anatolia). A religious teacher, he became the spiritual head of a community of students that gradually developed into a circle of mystics who cultivated ritual based on poetry, music, and dance. Rūmī’s mysticism was intensified through his acquaintance with the dervish Shams al-Dīn of Tabrīz, in whom he recognized a manifestation of transcendental beauty. Even after Shams’s disappearance, Rūmī identified with him to such an extent that he signed most of his more than 3,000 ghazals with Shams’s name. Rūmī also wrote a didactic masnawi in six volumes known as the Mas̄navī-yi maʿnavī (“The Spiritual Masnawi,” or “The Spiritual Couplets”). This poem, undoubtedly the masterpiece of Persian mystical poetry, combines the stylistic influences of both Sanāʾī and ʿAṭṭār. After Rūmī’s death, his circle was institutionalized as the Mawlawiyyah order of Sufis, also known as the Mevlevis and often identified in the West as the “whirling dervishes.” They became one of the great mystical organizations in the Ottoman Empire.
